Recombinant DNA changes the natural genetic makeup and the characteristics of an organism by inserting DNA from another organism. Also known as genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology is widely used in agriculture to create genetically modified organisms that produce genetically modified crops.
The first GM food was the Flavr Savr tomato, produced in 1994, which had a longer shelf life and an enhanced flavour. Since then, the number of GMOs has increased as producers prefer them over traditional crops because they yield more and require less care.
Genetic Recombination Applications Across Agricultural and Scientific Sectors
r-DNA technology has been exploited to provide selective improvements in various specialties that include crop agriculture, pharmaceutics, gene therapy, vaccine design, and bioremediation.
The latter is a waste management technique that deliberately introduces GMOs into a site to neutralise environmental contaminants (breaking down hazardous substances into less toxic or non-toxic compounds) with the aim of cleansing thoroughly, quickly, and cheaply polluted soil or water. The following is the beneficial effect of genetic recombination applications.
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Genetically Modified Crops in Agricultural Production
In agriculture, the development of genetically modified crops to improve both yield and resistance to plant pests or herbicides seems to have gained a degree of public acceptance and is already practised in a commercial context in several countries.
The genetically modified tomato CGN-89564-2 was the first commercially grown, genetically engineered crop product to be granted a licence for human consumption. This was developed in 1994 to express the trait of delayed softening of tomato flesh as a practical means to minimise post-harvest crop losses.
Ironically, given its brand name of ‘Flavr Savr’, this failed in the marketplace not due to public apprehension over eating a genetically altered food per se but to an apparent lack of taste.
Nevertheless, the introduction of genetically modified fruit paved the way for use of GMOs in food, and today genetic modification is widespread. In the US, 88% of corn and 93% of soybeans are genetically altered and much of this finds its way unlabelled into processed foods.
The introduction of pest-resistant brinjal (also known as eggplant or aubergine) was met with criticism in some countries, in contrast to the concurrent popularity of pest-resistant cotton.
Both attempts at implementation followed incorporation of the identical crystal protein gene (Cry1Ac) from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) into the genome of the host plant, expression of which synthesises so-called Bt toxins that confer resistance to predation by lepidopteran insects.
However, of the two uses as food and as clothing the one which caused anxiety among the general public involved human consumption.
The benefits to humans of using Bt toxin should be stressed in an attempt to overcome the initial unpopularity of consuming Bt-brinjals in developing countries such as India, Bangladesh, and the Philippines.
GM foods make up a vast majority of the foods available in the market today. Recombinant DNA has increased the overall production of crops, as well as decreased the amounts of herbicides and insecticides used by farmers.
This means that farmers produce larger amounts of food while spending less time caring for the crop and paying less for insecticides and herbicides. Higher yields also benefit the consumer, as more food is available at lower prices. GM foods are the new normal.
Bioremediation Using Genetically Engineered Microorganisms
Pseudomonas putida and Nitrosomonas europaea are the organisms that are typically utilised in bioremediation. The objective is to isolate the original genes located in these bacteria that promote bioremediation, then modify and incorporate them into a suitable host to be used as a bioremediation agent, usually E. coli.
This may, however, impact normal ecosystems as well; for example, bacteria that have an improved ability to digest petroleum could, if exposed, cause destruction of important petroleum products. Hence, stringent monitoring of in situ bioremediation is essential.
In producing genetically modified bacteria, the simplest way of screening is to incorporate a marker gene, which typically confers antibiotic resistance. This achieves the purposeful generation of antibiotic-resistant organisms which, if mishandled, could become problematic under natural conditions.
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Biotechnology Advancements and Genetic Modification in Aquatic Species
An appreciable biotechnological success and novel commercial application is the production of genetically modified fluorescent zebrafish, Danio rerio, and similar species using genes encoding glowing characteristics.
This is marketed under the GloFish® patent in the US where fish coloured bright red, green, orange-yellow, blue, and purple are sold as pets to be kept in the controlled environment of an indoor aquarium.
In the event of a release, inadvertent or deliberate, into the environment, the survival capacity of these constantly fluorescent fish is markedly reduced due to increased vulnerability to predation compared to wild-type fish; thus, the risk of sustained ecological impact is considered to be marginal.
However, in-depth research to confirm or refute this notion is currently not possible because of insufficient understanding and a lack of technology to study the nexus of evolutionary biology and ecology with specific reference to the introduction of a novel species into, and its subsequent migration from, an ecosystem.
Genetic Engineering in Medicine and Related Agricultural Analogues
Drug delivery systems in medicine that are based on bacterial or viral hosts could prove hazardous if either the organism is genetically unstable and converts to a pathogenic type or if purification is incomplete.
In an analogous proof of concept from the agricultural sphere, the use of the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens as a vehicle for gene transfer is very effective and has become widely adopted despite its tumorigenicity, causing crown gall disease of dicotyledonous plants.
Genetic reversion is also a major concern regarding the experimental technique of gene therapy to treat or prevent otherwise incurable genetic disorders and acquired diseases, research into which was slowed in the early 2000s due to cases of viral vector instability.
Consequently, identification of a preferred system to safely and efficiently deliver an altered gene of choice has become a priority as the technology advances from development and laboratory research to clinical translational trials.
The utilisation of genetic engineering in the production of transgenic organisms is a recent major development in the agriculture, medicine, bioremediation, and biotechnology industries. Despite the now-widespread use of GMOs, the potential for less obvious long-term ecological impacts is acknowledged.
The acceptance by the lay public of genetically engineered products appears to be affected by perceived increased risk to personal health and the environment, especially when relating to food production and consumption.
Ecological impacts observed to date have proved much less threatening and occurred with less frequency than public perception would suggest. However, in some notable cases, GMOs have hurt wildlife due to both determined and undetermined changes.
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