This article introduces one of the basic sociological concepts briefly defined in the last article social stratification. The concept is now examined in detail. The objectives below specify what should be understood after studying this article.
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Understanding the Concept of Social Stratification
All societies exhibit some system of hierarchy whereby members are placed in positions that are higher or lower, superior or inferior, in relation to each other. The term stratification is taken from geologists who refer to different layers of soil or rock as stratum the earth’s surface consisting of various strata, each of which is distinct from certain criteria according to which they have been categorised.
Each society hence constructs a vertical evaluative scale in terms of specific criteria considered important to it and places its population in various layers or strata at different classified levels on this scale some in higher, others in lower, and still others at various levels between the highest and lowest strata.
Those in the top stratum have more prestige, power, and preferential treatment than those below, and each succeeding stratum possesses less of these attributes than the one above.
There is thus a universal tendency for societies all over the world to evaluate differences that are socially significant among people, and that arise from cultural or biological variations.
These variations are ranked on a scale involving differential value. Social status refers to social standing or position of an individual or group in relation to others as ranked by society in accordance with criteria which are considered of special worth or value by society.
Thus, in some societies, occupation, income, and wealth may be the important criteria that determine social status; in others, caste, creed, family name, and background may be most important; in still others, education and ownership of material possessions may be the uppermost criteria. Whatever may be these socially defined criteria, they serve to place individuals and groups within some strata of society.
Definitions and Sociological Views on Social Stratification
According to Lundberg (1968), social stratification is the “division of a population into two or more layers, each of which is relatively homogenous and between which there are differences in privileges, restrictions, rewards and obligations”.
Stratification involves rank differentiation and constitutes an order of ranking on the basis of relative position within the rating system operating in society. Each stratum of society is only relatively homogenous as distinct from other strata.
Further, privileges and rewards enjoyed or restrictions imposed may or may not be related to needs of society. Social stratification has also been defined by Cuber (1954) as “a pattern of superimposed categories of differential privilege”. Three features of this definition need to be emphasized for greater comprehension:
1. Social stratification is a socially accepted cultural pattern that assigns members of society a general position in the structure of society;
2. Social stratification is superimposed by members of society by tradition and, without either the will or conscious knowledge of the majority; and
3. Social stratification involves a system of differential privilege, unequal distribution of privileges, goods, power, services, etc. among members belonging to different social strata.
According to Jibowo (1992), stratification is the division of people into various classes. Social class in society is a pyramid in which high classes take the topmost position and the lowest classes the base of the pyramid. Middle classes occupy intervening places on the pyramid between these two extreme levels of society. The social classes in the rural area are different from those in the urban area in the following ways:
1. Social classes are fewer in the rural than in the urban area. This is because the opportunities available for rural dwellers to modify their social positions are limited.
2. The lowest and highest social classes in the rural area are closer than in the urban area.
3. Rural social class tends to be lower class.
4. The caste system is not rigid in urban towns as much as in the rural areas or small towns of Hausa/Fulani dominated areas of Northern Nigeria. Among the Ibo, the caste system is minimal. The group referred to as “Osu” was being subjected to caste discrimination. The system is virtually non-existing among the Yoruba.
Social stratification emerges from interaction of members in society. When people in society interact with one another over a prolonged period of time, they tend to compare and rank individuals and groups who differ from one another.
Their relative worth is judged in terms of specific criteria. Roles are evolved, ascribed and evaluated differentially. Some roles are regarded more important, with greater esteem and social value than others, and individuals filling these roles thereby receive preferential treatment and greater reward than others.
Groups thus ranked with some degree of permanence are said to be stratified. When society divides its population into a large number of such groups, a highly stratified society is the result.
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Functions of Social Stratification in Agricultural Communities
1. A means of accomplishing essential jobs in society: Stratification in society constitutes a means of society’s getting some of its essential jobs done by distributing different amounts of prestige and privilege to various strata.
An army is an example of stratification with clearly defined strata, each marked with visible symbols denoting rank, specific roles and role expectations, norms and prescribed standards of behaviour and inter-relationship all clearly organised to do a job.
Armies are within the structure of society and societies as a whole are also stratified, although more often with less clarity and demarcation between various strata than in the army.
As society moves from the primitive, with little differentiation except on such bases as sex and age, toward greater size and, with technological advances, greater complexity, its system of distributing privileges, prestige and rewards and punishment becomes increasingly elaborate.
The rewards society gives serve as incentives to get the various essential jobs accomplished; hence, rewards must be commensurate with the job to be done or at least adequate to attract individuals to do the job. These rewards may be economic, aesthetic or symbolic and give material and/or psychological satisfactions.
2. Regulation and control of individual and group relationships and participation: Stratification regulates and controls human relationships in society. Prescribed roles and role expectation, norms and standards of behaviour are involved in relationships within each stratum and in interstratum relationships.
Stratification tends to regulate participation of groups and individuals in the total life of society, giving them access to certain areas and restricting them to others. Inequality of opportunity or non-availability of facilities gives advantages to those in higher strata and deprives those belonging to lower strata, thus regulating participation.
3. Contribution to social integration and structure: Stratification in society has a strong integrative function, serving to coordinate and harmonise units within the social structure. Stratification further serves to influence the functions of various units of social strata.
Each may develop its own voluntary organizations to serve recreational (and some other) needs, the nature of such organizations varying from stratum to stratum. Thus, members of a particular stratum will have clubs, teams and perhaps a recreational centre distinct from those of other strata in society.
4. Simplification of social structure: Stratification of society categorises people into different strata, thus simplifying man’s world in respect to his relations with other people.
While within primary groups it is no problem to know how one should behave toward other individuals because of intimate knowledge of each other, to know how to react in various situations involving several people outside of primary groups is extremely difficult without such classification.
For example, the criterion of age as an identification of adulthood, while not always valid in specific instances, does serve a desired purpose when dealing with the entire population. There is hence practical justification in the practice of categorizing of people and responding to each category differently, but responding identically to all persons within a category.
Dysfunctions of Social Stratification in Society
1. Status and role in stratified society carry with them duties, rights, and expectations. It has been observed that the individuals who have been accorded status and roles by nature of their placement in various strata in society often lack the capabilities and competence necessary to effectively fill these roles and perform the expected functions.
Since others who may be competent and capable of filling such roles are not ascribed these roles because of the stratification system that precludes them, the net result is wastage of social resources.
2. Essential roles of society are sometimes neglected or made subordinate when status is ascribed, not to them, but to some other roles that are less important to the essential interests of society. Essential effort and resources are thus diverted to functions that are of less social importance.
The elaborate and somewhat ostentatious observance of feasting by certain stratified groups may reflect their high status but contributes little and is functionally unimportant to effective performance of prescribed roles.
3. Social stratification may “set the stage” for interstratum rivalry and conflict. Such conflict may take various forms but in general results from an upthrust from lower strata to share equal rights with the upper strata and a downthrust from upper strata to keep lower strata in their place.
Such conflict frequently occurs when stratification systems are weakening, or in the process of disintegration, being subjected to a variety of influential forces within society such as new ideologies, pressure groups, collective frustration of lower strata, and/or political and other interest groups.
An example is the racial conflicts in the U.S.A., South Africa and countries newly independent or immediately prior to achievement of independence from colonialism.
4. Stratification may be linked with various types of deviant behaviour. A stratification system involves ascribing of roles to individuals and enforcement of conformity according to roles, expectations, and prescribed norms and standards of behaviour.
For some, particularly members of lower strata of society who have less rights and privileges than those belonging to higher strata, conformity is difficult.
They therefore deviate from normative behaviour and may even withdraw from society to become vagabonds, drug addicts, drunkards; seek devious means to avoid normal social behaviour; resort to crime, or rebel in some way or other.
5. Concentration of power by controlling a lower class group may result in the monopoly of the assets of society for personal gain and benefit at the expense of the dominated class.
Thus, a privileged few may prosper while the lower classes are deprived. Such inequitable distributions of power usually sow seeds of revolutions, which often has been the only way to destroy such imbalances.
6. Each class tends to develop its own sub-culture, which may or may not fit into the cultural whole of society. In some cases where stratification is rigid, social integration is impeded and intercommunication between various strata may be difficult. Concern for the whole may be lacking as each stratum tends to function as a sub-culture.
7. Unless a member of a lower class is supported by a basic philosophy that explains their position in society and enables adjustment to it, personality may be adversely affected as will self-perception as a “nobody” and one who does not count.
Stratification in society can hence impede normal development of personality of members of lower classes so that realization of potential is never achieved.
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